Ethics: Theory
Scope and application
The study of Ethics seems very different from other Areas of Knowledge with questions such as “How should we act?” and “What is right?” and “What is wrong?”. Very few philosophers study Ethics as a subject on its own. Everyone seems to have a sense of ‘correct’ behavior, though it differs from person to person. We come with different statements on how someone did something unethical or someone did just the right thing in the given situation. Every day people are put in situations in which they have to make ethical choices/opinions. Ethics is an important Area of Knowledge, not only for individuals’ private lives, but also for people working in widespread professions. Unethical behaviors are known to have vast ramifications. This has been very apparent, especially, in the past few years, and will further on through scandals in widespread areas such as politics, sports, economics, and so on. Some say that Ethics is a set of behaviors, which through evolution, have been subject to natural selection. In this case we may be able to apply scientific modeling to explore Ethics, and psychology to factor how, as well as why, we have certain ethical beliefs and dispositions. Another view, said to be radical, is that of Ethics as a completely random system of rules and conventions imposed on a naïve society by those with political power. If this I true, we are all responding to social conditioning. The Ethics in this case does not come from within our selves, but from those with power and status. When it comes to Ethics, many questions a raised every day, such as:
http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/google-tips-off-us-police-to-man-storing-images-of-child-abuse-on-his-gmail-account-9647551.html This article is about a 41-year-old sex offender who, with the help of Google, was arrested for having images of child abuse on his email account.
http://www.mediaite.com/online/there-is-no-such-thing-as-objective-journalism-get-over-it/ This article debates the lack of 'objectivity' in journalism.
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/29/business/media/facebook-to-shield-ads-from-offensive-content.html "Facebook said on Friday that it would remove ads from pages that contain controversial content, as it tries to protect advertisers from appearing next to offensive material beyond their control." Also more general and universal questions are part of our everyday lives such as:
http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/08/13/us/ferguson-missouri-town-under-siege-after-police-shooting.html In this article, the incident in Ferguson is described step by step. The act of the policeofficer resulted in demonstrations and violent comments and acts from citizens all over the world.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/ireland/11614313/Ireland-gay-marriage-referendum-what-you-need-to-know.html This article is about the polls result from the voting in Ireland about gay marriage; whether it should be legalised or not.
http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/06/09/world/europe/ap-eu-ireland-abortion.html After Ireland voted yes to gay marriage, people are now pushing for the right to abortion. Once a certain ethical issue has been solved the next occurs. By Emilie S. |
"Ethics is a code of values which guides our choices and actions and determine the purpose and course of our lives." |
Concepts & language
In an area of knowledge as abstract, complex, and pedantic as ethics and morality, language plays a vital role in conveying the ideas, concepts, and knowledge of the AOK. Firstly, language lays the foundation for creating a system of ethics, complete with different subsystems, most notably the deontological systems and the teleological systems as well as their various subbranches such as ethical egoism, utilitarianism, and virtue ethics. Secondly, language also helps conveying the concept and ideas of the various branches of ethics, most notably through metaphors or thought experiments such as the trolley problem.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/virtue.shtml -- BBC on Virtue Ethics
One of the most fundamental distinctions that language bring to this AOK is the distinction between ethics
and morality, where, despite an overlap between the two being acknowledged, "moral" is about behavior and values, while ethics is a more rigorous, formal and academic study of our moral values. This distinction neatly stated in this definition from professor Martha Highfield, from California State University at Northridge: "The difference between ethics and morality is similar to the difference between musicology and music, ethics is a conscious stepping back and reflecting on morality, just as musicology is a conscious reflection on music.".
Similarly, language helps us create systems within the field of ethics, enabling us to have a more organised system of the different ethical schools of thought. The two standard types of ethical systems are the deontological systems, in which the morality, the rightness and wrongness, of an action is determined by the intentions of the actor, and the teleological systems, where the morality of an action depends on the consequences of said action. These systems in turn, have smaller subbranches with their different distinctions and views on ethics.
Ethical egoism is an example of a deontological theory of ethics, in which it is argued that we should behave in a way that benefits our long-term happiness. A famous proponent of ethical egoism is Ayn Rand, who stated the fundamental value of ethical egoism as such: "Accept the fact that the achievement of your own happiness is the only moral purpose of your life, and that happiness - not pain or mindless self-indulgence - is the proof of your moral integrity, since it is the proof and the result of your loyalty to the achievement of your values". Ethical egoism can be contrasted with the theory of Altruism, Which states that we should sacrifice our interests in favour of those of others.
Another deontological theory of ethics is the theory of Immanuel Kant, who with his notion of the categorical imperative, said: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" By this he meant that an action could only be considered moral if a consistent world was produced, if everybody obeyed the principle on which the act was based on
http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0038x9c -- BBC Podcast on Altruism
In contrast, utilitarianism is a teleological or consequentialist theory of ethics, which states that the best action is that which produces the best outcome for the greatest amount of people. In this ethical system, the morality of an action is not determined by the intentions of the actor, nor by the morality of the morality of the act on its own. Rather, an acts morality is determined by whether or not it creates a desirable outcome.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/consequentialism_1.shtml -- BBC on Consequentialism
In addition to creating order in the study of ethics, language can also help convey ethical concepts and ideas, through metaphors and thought experiments. One of such thought experiments is the famous trolley problem, in which an actor sees a train travelling on a track, on which three people are tied. However, the actor can, by pulling a lever, divert the train onto a different track, onto which only one person is tied. The actor now faces a choice: he can allow the train to continue, allowing three people to die, or he can divert the train, killing one person. The various ethical theories have different ways of dealing with these ethical dilemmas, each with their various outcomes and implications. In addition, a range of variations of the trolley problem has been made, who further challenges the assumptions of the different schools of ethics, and each bring their own implications. This illustrates how these thought experiments can help form and understand different ethical concepts, and lends a better understanding to the different ethical schools.
By Andreas C.
In an area of knowledge as abstract, complex, and pedantic as ethics and morality, language plays a vital role in conveying the ideas, concepts, and knowledge of the AOK. Firstly, language lays the foundation for creating a system of ethics, complete with different subsystems, most notably the deontological systems and the teleological systems as well as their various subbranches such as ethical egoism, utilitarianism, and virtue ethics. Secondly, language also helps conveying the concept and ideas of the various branches of ethics, most notably through metaphors or thought experiments such as the trolley problem.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/virtue.shtml -- BBC on Virtue Ethics
One of the most fundamental distinctions that language bring to this AOK is the distinction between ethics
and morality, where, despite an overlap between the two being acknowledged, "moral" is about behavior and values, while ethics is a more rigorous, formal and academic study of our moral values. This distinction neatly stated in this definition from professor Martha Highfield, from California State University at Northridge: "The difference between ethics and morality is similar to the difference between musicology and music, ethics is a conscious stepping back and reflecting on morality, just as musicology is a conscious reflection on music.".
Similarly, language helps us create systems within the field of ethics, enabling us to have a more organised system of the different ethical schools of thought. The two standard types of ethical systems are the deontological systems, in which the morality, the rightness and wrongness, of an action is determined by the intentions of the actor, and the teleological systems, where the morality of an action depends on the consequences of said action. These systems in turn, have smaller subbranches with their different distinctions and views on ethics.
Ethical egoism is an example of a deontological theory of ethics, in which it is argued that we should behave in a way that benefits our long-term happiness. A famous proponent of ethical egoism is Ayn Rand, who stated the fundamental value of ethical egoism as such: "Accept the fact that the achievement of your own happiness is the only moral purpose of your life, and that happiness - not pain or mindless self-indulgence - is the proof of your moral integrity, since it is the proof and the result of your loyalty to the achievement of your values". Ethical egoism can be contrasted with the theory of Altruism, Which states that we should sacrifice our interests in favour of those of others.
Another deontological theory of ethics is the theory of Immanuel Kant, who with his notion of the categorical imperative, said: "Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law" By this he meant that an action could only be considered moral if a consistent world was produced, if everybody obeyed the principle on which the act was based on
http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0038x9c -- BBC Podcast on Altruism
In contrast, utilitarianism is a teleological or consequentialist theory of ethics, which states that the best action is that which produces the best outcome for the greatest amount of people. In this ethical system, the morality of an action is not determined by the intentions of the actor, nor by the morality of the morality of the act on its own. Rather, an acts morality is determined by whether or not it creates a desirable outcome.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/consequentialism_1.shtml -- BBC on Consequentialism
In addition to creating order in the study of ethics, language can also help convey ethical concepts and ideas, through metaphors and thought experiments. One of such thought experiments is the famous trolley problem, in which an actor sees a train travelling on a track, on which three people are tied. However, the actor can, by pulling a lever, divert the train onto a different track, onto which only one person is tied. The actor now faces a choice: he can allow the train to continue, allowing three people to die, or he can divert the train, killing one person. The various ethical theories have different ways of dealing with these ethical dilemmas, each with their various outcomes and implications. In addition, a range of variations of the trolley problem has been made, who further challenges the assumptions of the different schools of ethics, and each bring their own implications. This illustrates how these thought experiments can help form and understand different ethical concepts, and lends a better understanding to the different ethical schools.
By Andreas C.
Methodology
Obtaining knowledge in ethics comes in various forms and ways, yet determining one true method is near enough impossible. How are we supposed to limit acquiring ethics knowledge to one method? Although we may not be able to restrict our methods, we can explore one of them. One such is deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a process that allows the conclusion to be true if the premises are so too. For example:
3. ToK is torture
In order to validate this argument, both premises must be true, yet many would argue that premise 1 is exaggerated, and therefore not true. Thus, the conclusion is not true. Yet, deductive reasoning is flawed in regards to ethics, as one may believe that premise 1 is true, and others may not. The premises that we believe to be true, reflect our ethical beliefs. Ethical belief systems include but are not limited to ethical egoism, altruism, and utilitarianism. All of these ethical belief systems differ on their choice of premises. An ethical egoist believes that one ought to do what is your own self-interest. A situation where a husband has to decide to pay for his wife's expensive medical treatment or to let her die from the disease, an ethical egoist would evaluate the situation as such:
3. I must pay for her treatment
The ethical egoist prioritized his own interests, which resulted in helping another. But the important thing, is that he only helped her due to his own self-interests and not hers.
This is where the ethical egoist differs from the altruist, who believes that we should sacrifice our own self-interests to help others. In this situation, the altruist would evaluate the situation as such:
3. I must pay for her treatment
Finally there is the utilitarianist, who wishes to achieve happiness for the greater good, and therefore
3. I must pay for her treatment
The utilitarianist pays for the treatment as a life would be saved, which would equate to the husband's happiness, and the wife's. Although all ethical belief systems reached the same conclusion, it was for very different reasons, and had it been a different situation, they may not have. This does not mean that any of the premises were wrong, but that some would simply disagree with the logical process.
By Anna R.
Obtaining knowledge in ethics comes in various forms and ways, yet determining one true method is near enough impossible. How are we supposed to limit acquiring ethics knowledge to one method? Although we may not be able to restrict our methods, we can explore one of them. One such is deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a process that allows the conclusion to be true if the premises are so too. For example:
- ToK is a device used to drive IB students into insanity
- Torture causes mental or physical suffering
3. ToK is torture
In order to validate this argument, both premises must be true, yet many would argue that premise 1 is exaggerated, and therefore not true. Thus, the conclusion is not true. Yet, deductive reasoning is flawed in regards to ethics, as one may believe that premise 1 is true, and others may not. The premises that we believe to be true, reflect our ethical beliefs. Ethical belief systems include but are not limited to ethical egoism, altruism, and utilitarianism. All of these ethical belief systems differ on their choice of premises. An ethical egoist believes that one ought to do what is your own self-interest. A situation where a husband has to decide to pay for his wife's expensive medical treatment or to let her die from the disease, an ethical egoist would evaluate the situation as such:
- I love my wife
- Her absence would cause me great misery
3. I must pay for her treatment
The ethical egoist prioritized his own interests, which resulted in helping another. But the important thing, is that he only helped her due to his own self-interests and not hers.
This is where the ethical egoist differs from the altruist, who believes that we should sacrifice our own self-interests to help others. In this situation, the altruist would evaluate the situation as such:
- She is my wife
- She is suffering
3. I must pay for her treatment
Finally there is the utilitarianist, who wishes to achieve happiness for the greater good, and therefore
- My wife will die if she does not receive treatment
- I will not die if I pay for her treatment
3. I must pay for her treatment
The utilitarianist pays for the treatment as a life would be saved, which would equate to the husband's happiness, and the wife's. Although all ethical belief systems reached the same conclusion, it was for very different reasons, and had it been a different situation, they may not have. This does not mean that any of the premises were wrong, but that some would simply disagree with the logical process.
By Anna R.